Case Study

Encouraging Appropriate Behavior

Introduction

Effective classroom behavior management is among the most common and persistent challenges facing both beginning and experienced educators. Minor, serious, or somewhere in between, challenging behaviors can interfere with teachers’ ability to provide instruction and students’ ability to receive instruction and learn. Many teachers report feeling unprepared for developing effective classroom management procedures and using evidence-based strategies to address challenging behavior.

These feelings of confusion and helplessness can result in frustration, undue stress, burnout, and even leaving the profession (i.e., teacher attrition). Moreover, students can experience lost instructional time, reduced academic achievement, and decreased engagement and motivation.

In terms of discipline, students from different backgrounds—Black and Latino students in particular—are subject to more frequent and harsher punishment than their White peers. This discipline often results from subjective understandings of student behavior, like interpreting an action as rude or disrespectful rather than as stemming from a background difference. These subjective interpretations lead to negative outcomes for students that further exclude them from learning opportunities and in turn lead to higher rates of suspensions, expulsions, and even students leaving school altogether.

Fortunately, there are proactive approaches that teachers can use to manage classroom behavior, including the purposeful encouraging of appropriate student behaviors. When students are engaged in appropriate behaviors, they naturally engage in fewer disruptions and challenging behaviors. This allows for increased instructional time, greater student engagement, and improved learning and achievement.

This case study addresses several well-established practices teachers can use to encourage appropriate behavior, namely:

• Behavior-specific praise
• Criterion-specific rewards
• Choice making
• Rules
• Contingent instructions
• Group contingency

These practices will be explored on the following IRIS STAR Sheets.

Each case study includes multiple STAR Sheets and cases.

About the Strategy

Behavior-specific praise is a positive statement directed toward a student or group of students that acknowledges a desired behavior in specific, observable, and measurable terms. Behavior-specific praise is used to promote appropriate behaviors or actions in the classroom and therefore prevent or decrease undesired behaviors.

Although teachers can use general praise to reinforce student behavior, behavior-specific praise is considered the most effective strategy—one that reinforces specific, appropriate classroom behaviors. Note the differences in the table below.

General Praise	Behavior-Specific Praise
“Great job, Jonah!”	“Jonah, I like how you are facing forward and keeping your hands to yourself as you stand in line.”

What the Research and Resources Say

• Praise can be used to build positive relationships with students and to help create a supportive classroom environment and climate (Brophy, 1998; Emmer et al., 2021; Marchant & Anderson, 2012; Shores et al., 1993).
• The effectiveness of praise intensifies when it is delivered in close proximity (Gable et al., 2009).
• Positive or praise statements should be provided more often than corrective ones. A ratio of four positive statements for every one reprimand is recommended (Musti-Rao & Haydon, 2011; Myers et al., 2011).
• Behavior-specific praise has been effective in increasing social, behavioral, and academic outcomes for students of all ages, including time on task, number of correct responses, and academic engagement (Conroy et al., 2009; Musti-Rao & Haydon, 2011).
• Vary types of praise to avoid overuse and satiation. In some cases, praise should be used in conjunction with other types of reinforcements or rewards (Brophy, 1998; Kerr & Nelson, 2010).
• Despite claims that students in secondary schools find behavior-specific praise to be embarrassing, research has shown that students exhibit increased academic engagement when the praise is genuine. Statements delivered privately or discreetly have also been shown to be effective (O’Handley et al., 2020).
• Behavior-specific praise is a proactive strategy that educators can use to effectively prevent challenging behavior, as opposed to merely reacting to such behavior once it occurs (Royer et al., 2019).

Strategies to Implement

• Establish Behavioral Expectations
  • As part of creating a safe and respectful classroom environment, establish and explicitly teach behavioral expectations—that is, the behaviors you wish your students to display.
  • As you establish behavioral expectations, scan the classroom for students engaging in these desired behaviors during instructional time, transitions, or downtime.
• Deliver Effective Praise Statements
  • Provide behavior-specific praise to a student by saying the student’s name and describing the behavior immediately after they perform it (e.g., “Joselle, thank you for cleaning up immediately when I rang the science bell.”)
  • Deliver praise immediately and in close proximity. Be sure to circulate the room so you are prepared to catch students being good.

Tips	Example	Non-Example
Be nonjudgmental.	“Marcus, you really did a great job being prepared for class today by bringing your pencils and notebook.”	“Marcus, I’m glad you brought your supplies today like everyone else.”
Be specific and include detail. Avoid global positive statements (e.g., great job, nice work).	“Wow, Keesha! You used several descriptive terms in your paragraph to create a vivid setting.”	“Wow, Keesha! Great writing today!”
Highlight the student’s efforts and accomplishments.	“Hector, I like how you used your notes to solve the multiplication problem, placing numbers in the appropriate columns and remembering to regroup the numbers above the nine.”	“Way to go in math today.”
Be sincere and credible. Make sure your tone and body language match the content of your message.	Smiling, giving a high five: “I’m so proud to see that your reading scores have improved this quarter. It’s clear you have been working hard in class. Keep up the great work.”	Sarcastic tone: “Your reading scores finally improved this quarter.”

• Evaluate and Adjust Praise
  • Examine the quality, quantity, and impact of your use of praise. Consider asking yourself:
    • Is the praise specific?
    • Is the praise effective? Do the students seem to like the attention?
    • Do students maintain or improve the praised behavior?
    • Do I offer each student some form of praise every day?
    • Do I maintain a positive balance of positive and negative statements?
    • Is the praise I offer varied?

• Revise the type, delivery, or frequency of praise as needed based on individual student responses or needs.
• Use frequent praise when new behaviors and skills are taught. As the skill is mastered, gradually reduce the delivery of praise to a more intermittent schedule.

About the Strategy

A criterion-specific reward is a positive consequence—often referred to as a reinforcement—delivered after the occurrence of an identified target behavior at a set level of performance. Criterion-specific rewards can be used as part of a proactive intervention for building desirable social, behavioral, and academic skills in both individual students and the classroom as a whole.

What the Research and Resources Say

• Teachers can use criterion-specific rewards to:
  • Increase students’ social, behavioral, or learning skills and efforts
  • Target appropriate behaviors in order to eliminate inappropriate ones (Alberto & Troutman, 2017; Johns, 2015)
• To be effective, criterion-specific rewards should be delivered immediately after a student engages in a target behavior. Rewards should be desirable and appealing to students. They should also be carefully planned and realistically attainable (Alberto & Troutman, 2017; Martella et al., 2012; Harlacher, 2015).
• Reinforcers should be simple to implement, easy to record, inexpensive, and nondisruptive (Evertson et al., 2021; Harlacher, 2015; Smith & Rivera, 1993).
• Reinforcers chosen by students are often more motivating than those selected for them (Alberto & Troutman, 2017; Smith & Rivera, 1993).
• To prevent rewards from losing their effectiveness or motivational properties, teachers should vary them over time (Jones & Jones, 1998; Harlacher, 2015).
• Rewards can be social in nature, involve activities or privileges, or be tangible items or objects (Alberto & Troutman, 2017; Emmer et al., 2021). (For more information, see the Types of Criterion-Specific Rewards chart at the end of this STAR Sheet.)
• Learning more about students’ family norms and values can help teachers meaningfully implement classroom management techniques and effectively identify and deliver rewards (Cramer & Bennett, 2015; Milner & Tenore, 2010).

Strategies to Implement

Identify Target Behaviors

• Identify and outline behaviors that would help increase success in the classroom. Begin with the behaviors likely to have the most significant impact. Tasks that are already motivating for students might not require external rewards.
• Describe in specific terms the behavior and criteria necessary to achieve the reward. Consider settings in which the behavior might look different (e.g., small-group, recess).

Select Rewards

• Brainstorm a list of rewards that are feasible, affordable, age appropriate, and complement your learning environment and teaching style.
• Review school and district policies regarding the use of any activity, material, or food item that you might want to use as rewards.
• Verify any individual student needs, health-related or otherwise (e.g., food allergies), which could limit your use of these types of rewards.
• Collect input on student preferences using multiple means.
  • Seek student input through a discussion or survey.
  • Observe students during activities and free time (noting the types of activities, interactions, and materials they select during these times).
  • Gather input from significant others (e.g., family members, other teachers) about student preferences and interests.
• Match rewards to behaviors. The reward must have adequate value for the student, yet it must not be too easily earned.

Implement Rewards

• Explain the reward program in advance so that students understand the target behaviors, expected criteria or performances, and corresponding rewards. (See the Types of Criterion-Specific Rewards chart at the end of this STAR Sheet.)
• Consistently deliver rewards as planned and as scheduled.
• Always state the specific behavior that is being reinforced when you deliver rewards. (For more information, see the Behavior-Specific Praise STAR Sheet.)
• Make time in your weekly schedule for rewards. Provide time as appropriate for:
  • Activity and privilege rewards
  • Selection of tangible rewards
  • Individual student conferences to review progress and to adjust personal behavioral goals or rewards
• Involve students in the process of monitoring and evaluating their progress when possible.

Evaluate and Adjust Rewards

• Institute a recordkeeping system to keep track of the delivery of your rewards (or the behaviors demonstrated) to evaluate whether your reward system is working.
• Vary rewards over time to ensure students won’t get tired of them.
• Verify the effectiveness of potential rewards so they are reinforcing for individual students (preference assessments or surveys can be useful to do so).
• Develop a clear and simple system to help keep track of behaviors and rewards for individual students or the class. Otherwise, you might find this process time-consuming and distracting.

Types of Criterion-Specific Rewards
	Description	Cautions	Examples
Social Rewards	Social Rewards: Give students the opportunity to interact with peer(s) of their choice These rewards can: Be used with instructional or non-instructional activities Support naturally occurring events in the classroom Be used effectively with a wide variety of students	Student-selected interactions can lead to problems if the paired or grouped students serve as misbehavior catalysts for one another or if social issues (e.g., gossiping, teasing, dating) overshadow other class activities	Student-selected activity partner or group Conversational free time Student-selected seating
Activity/Privilege Rewards	Activity Rewards: Enjoyable instructional or non-instructional activities that students find motivating Privilege Rewards: Less common school-based activities or responsibilities that hold special value “Escape” Rewards: Removal of an unpleasant activity These rewards can: Support naturally occurring events in the classroom Be used effectively with a wide variety of students Support completion of less desired activities. After completing a less desired activity (e.g., spelling practice), a student may then participate in some desired activity (e.g., computer time)	Must comply with school and district procedures Can be difficult to schedule Time to use the earned rewards must be consistently provided Are not always provided immediately, though offering praise or social reinforcers when the behavior occurs can alleviate this shortcoming “Escape” rewards such as a homework pass could result in non-mastery of content	Elementary Free time activity choice Extra computer time First in line for recess/lunch/home Team/line leader Skip even-numbered homework problems Classroom helper Secondary Listen to music while working (headphones) Sports/art equipment use Cross-age tutor
Tangible Rewards	Tangible Rewards: Objects or food items that students value and like These rewards: Are easy to deliver and effective, especially with hard-to-change behaviors Should be paired with praise when delivered so that they can later be faded	Can become costly if expensive consumable items are used Can cause disruption to the normal classroom environment, especially if used continuously Can lose effectiveness if provided after students have tired of it Different students have different reward choices Food rewards should be used infrequently. Use of these must take into consideration food allergies, nutritional and health issues, student and family preferences, and school policy	Elementary Stickers/temporary tattoos Pencils/pens/erasers Bookmarks/art supplies Books/posters Recycled games in good condition Small toys (cars, balls, puzzles) Secondary (As relevant above) Sunglasses/hats/T-shirts Drink/water bottles Magazines/graphic novels Food Items Granola bars/fruit snacks Pizza/popcorn/ice cream (can coincide with a class party)

About the Strategy

Choice making is the process through which a teacher offers a structured choice to a student in order to facilitate compliance with an instructional or behavioral request. This strategy increases students’ ownership over their learning. Choice making can be used to prevent challenging behaviors and increase specific desirable behaviors.

What the Research and Resources Say

• Choice making has been used across a variety of academic subjects and activities for students with and without disabilities and has resulted in improved student engagement, reduced behavior problems, increased skill acquisition, and long-term academic success (Kern & State, 2009; Royer et al., 2017; Nagro et al., 2019).

• Additional benefits of giving students the opportunity to make choices in their daily routines include:
  • Enhanced positive interactions between teachers and students (Jolivette, 2002)
  • Improved assignment attempts, completion, and accuracy (Cosden et al., 1995; Jolivette et al., 2017; Jolivette et al., 2001)
  • Heightened student engagement and fewer disruptive, off-task, and aggressive behaviors (Dunlap et al., 1994; Jolivette et al., 2017)
• Offering choices gives students decision-making opportunities that give them autonomy over their learning, which can lead to increased engagement, higher self-esteem, and greater self-determination. Although choice making can be used to address inappropriate behavior, it’s important to give all students opportunities for choice (Jolivette et , 2002; Kern & State, 2009; Royer et al., 2017; Smith & Yell, 2013).
• Awareness of students’ varying backgrounds can help teachers support relevant choice making, which in turn can increase student engagement and foster classroom management that is respectful of student differences (Milner & Tenore, 2010; Weinstein et al., 2004).

Strategies to Implement

Decide When to Use Choice Making

• In situations in which a student does not consistently comply with an instructional or behavioral request, consider allowing them to make a choice.
• Identify student learning preferences, likes, and interests. Observing students, asking them to complete learning preference surveys, and interviewing them or a family member can help you provide effective and individualized options.

Decide How to Use Choice Making

• Develop a variety of choice-making opportunities. The table below offers some examples

  Type	Choice-Making Examples
  Materials & Media	Practice math facts: Use manipulatives Work on computers Use flash cards
  Environment & Seating	Silent reading time: At your desk On a beanbag On the carpet
  Grouping	To complete an assignment: Work alone Work with a partner Work with a small group
  Activities	Gather information: Read a book Research on the Internet Listen to interviews
  	Demonstrate knowledge: Write a report Illustrate a concept Present an oral report
  Scheduling	Set order for completing assignments or activities: * Read a chapter Define vocabulary terms Complete a writing prompt * This is not appropriate for tasks that need to be completed in sequential order (e.g., an exit ticket can’t be completed before independent practice).

Provide Opportunities for Choice Making

• Include choices that are conducive to your teaching style and sustainable for the classroom environment. Avoid options you can’t live with or that will disrupt classroom learning.
• Limit your list of options to avoid overwhelming the students or yourself.
  • Younger children will benefit from two or three options
  • For older students, consider using a choice menu
• Present options clearly and don’t forget to make sure students understand them.
• Provide instruction or modeling to help students make and evaluate the outcomes of their choices.

Evaluate and Adjust Choice Opportunities

• Check to see whether choice making is effective. Ask yourself:
  • Do all students have the opportunity to make choices?
  • Have I provided choices in a way that is consistent?
  • Do students effectively use choice-making opportunities?
• Does choice making affect student participation, accomplishment, motivation, or behavior?
• Adjust choice-making options and opportunities as
• As you make adjustments, remember to vary the types of choices or options you offer students.

About the Strategy

Rules are explicit statements that define the appropriate behaviors that educators want students to demonstrate. Rules are important because they:

• Provide common guidelines for all students
• Remind and motivate students to behave as expected
• Offer predictability in the learning environment
• Allow students to monitor (or self-regulate) their own behavior

Establishing and maintaining the effective use of classroom rules is a critical and proactive foundation for preventing potential behavior problems.

What the Research and Resources Say

• Teachers with the most effective classrooms have clear ideas of what they expect of their students, just as the students have clear ideas of what the teacher expects from them (Evertson et al., 2021).
• Successful teachers not only identify effective rules but explicitly teach students how to apply them (Martella et al., 2012; Rademacher et al.,1998; Myers et al., 2017).
• Powerful rules are developmentally and age appropriate; clearly and positively stated; necessary, reasonable, observable and measurable; and enforceable (Gable et al., 2009; Kerr & Nelson, 2010; Walker, 1995; Weinstein & Romano, 2015).
• Although there is no magic number of classroom rules, fewer rules are generally preferable to more (Alter & Haydon, 2017). For efficiency, some experts recommend establishing between three and five rules (Gable et al., 2009; Walker et al., 1995).
• Teachers and students might have different views and understandings regarding what is considered appropriate behavior based on their backgrounds and experiences. Engaging in discussions, modeling, and opportunities to practice can promote greater understanding (Milner & Tenore, 2010; Weinstein et , 2003).
• Student involvement in designing or discussing the rationale for classroom rules can build a sense of student ownership and community, foster student buy-in, and prepare students for civic responsibility and the democratic process (Grossman, 2004; Savage & Savage, 2010; Schafer & Barker, 2018).
• Rules are most effective when they are directly taught to students and when they are tied to positive and negative consequences (Alter & Haydon, 2017; Cooper & Scott, 2017).

Strategies to Implement

Develop and State Rules

• Identify critical classroom behavior expectations that are necessary to promote successful learning and safety. Additionally, keep student backgrounds in mind so you do not create rules that favor some students.
• Involve students as appropriate in generating ideas for potential rules.
• Ensure rules align with any school-wide behavior expectations (e.g., Be responsible, Be ready).
• Make sure rules convey the expected behavior; are stated positively; use simple, specific terms; and are measurable and observable. See the examples in the table below.

	Convey the expected behavior	Stated positively	Use simple, specific terms	Is observable and measurable
Bring needed books and supplies to class.	X	X	X	X
Don’t forget your books and supplies.			X
Be ready to learn.		X	X

Identify and Communicate Consequences

• Identify appropriate positive consequences for observing classroom rules. These can include reinforcers that are tangible (e.g., stickers, tokens), social (e.g., smile, praise), and activity related (e.g., drawing, extra computer time).
• Create a hierarchy of negative consequence for rule infractions that ranges from the least intrusive (e.g., rule reminder) to the most intrusive (e.g., office referral).
• Ensure that consequences respect the background experiences, and dignity of the students.

Communicate and Teach Rules

• Step 1: Introduce—State the rule using simple, concrete, student-friendly language. For English language learners (ELLs), introduce the rules in the students’ home language when possible.
• Step 2: Discuss—Talk about why the rules are important (e.g., “Why is it important to use walking feet?”).
• Step 3: Model—Demonstrate what it looks like to follow the rule, using examples and non-examples. For example, for “Use walking feet,” demonstrate walking as an example and running and skipping as non-examples. Make certain that students understand the requirements for each rule and outline the positive and negative consequences for following or breaking the rules. Obtain students’ commitment to the rules and consequences (e.g., student signature on a copy of the rules, verbal agreement).
• Step 4: Practice—Have students role-play following the rule in different contexts (e.g., large-group versus independent work).
• Step 5: Review—Provide reviews and booster sessions on specific classroom rules as needed throughout the year or when one or more students are having difficulty following the rules. Some rules might need to be reviewed frequently, such as those that pertain to working in large groups or that involve transitions.

Evaluate and Monitor Rules

• Observe, scan, and actively circulate in the classroom to facilitate rule compliance and student engagement.
• Review rules frequently, especially early in the year. As students are learning the rules, treat rule violations as teachable moments. Offer a rule reminder (i.e., a least intrusive negative consequence) and reteach rather than criticize.
• Maintain consistency in enforcing the rules. Apply positive consequences for adhering to rules and negative consequences for not adhering to them.
• Monitor and record positive and negative consequences for following or breaking the rules. This is particularly helpful for negative consequences because records help teachers identify whether misbehavior is related to a particular time or activity and provide liability documentation.
• Offer ongoing feedback throughout the year and reteach or remind students about rules as appropriate. These “booster” sessions are especially important after long school breaks or holidays.

About the Strategy

Contingent instructions are specific directions used to (1) identify undesired behavior that a student should discontinue and (2) provide information on an alternate behavior in which the student should engage.

Example: “Lars, put away the car and get out your math book.”

What the Research and Resources Say

• Reprimands, which are used commonly by teachers to decrease a specific behavior, involve telling students what behavior to “stop,” as opposed to what behavior to “start” (Mather & Goldstein, 2001; Alberto & Troutman, 2017).
• Teachers who use excessive reprimands can potentially escalate a low-level behavior into a more serious problem and might experience more classroom disruptions than teachers who don’t use reprimands (Smith & Yell, 2013; Reinke et al., 2013).
• Contingent instructions, which are alternatives to reprimands, address both the inappropriate and desired behavior (Connolly et al., 1995).
• Contingent instructions should be delivered discreetly and immediately while specifying that the unwanted behavior should stop and the desired behavior should begin (Smith & Rivera, 1993).
• Redirecting student behavior in a clear and respectful manner with supportive and direct feedback conveys caring and an expectation of successful student learning and engagement, an important feature of practices that acknowledge different backgrounds (Cartledge & Kourea, 2008; Utley et al., 2002).

Strategies to Implement

• Decide When to Use Contingent Instructions: This approach can be used for:
  • Key behaviors that interfere with successful learning, such as breaking classroom rules and procedures, disrupting an instructional activity, or engaging in potentially harmful actions for the child or others
  • Behavioral expectations you are certain a student understands and can perform
• Implement Contingent Instructions: To effectively implement this approach, be sure that your directive adheres to the criteria in the table below.

Criteria	Description	Example	Non-Example
Specific	Include in your instruction (1) the specific behavior the student should terminate and (2) the appropriate behavior in which the student should engage.	“Alice, please put away your hairbrush and take out your planner.”	“Alice, stop playing with your hairbrush. We talked about the supplies you need to start class yesterday. I’m not sure why you don’t have your planner out but take it out right now.”
Nonjudgmental, definite, and clear	Use precise statements and avoid questions.	“Levi, take your hands off Patrick. Please put them at your side.”	“Don’t you want to go to recess, Levi? Follow our rule about lining up so you can go outside like all the good students.”
Private and individual	Make certain that you have the student’s attention by using the student’s name during your instruction.	Teacher standing next to Kaia: “Kaia, please put your phone away and continue working on your essay.”	Teacher standing at the front of the room: “Can you put your phone away?”
Neutral	Use a calm, polite, firm, and “normal” voice (one the students are used to). Make certain your body language and tone of voice are not emotional.	“Justin, put your magazine in your backpack. Please begin taking notes.”	“Justin, for the umpteenth time, get to work. Put away the magazine and begin taking notes.”
Resolute	Mean what you say. Savvy students will know whether you are a teacher who gives several opportunities before they really need to comply.	“Abel, please stop talking to your neighbor and begin working on your homework assignment.”	“Abel, please stop talking with your partner and get started on your homework.” “Abel, I already asked you to stop talking.…” “Abel, it’s time to start working.”
Followed by reinforcement	Praise and reinforce the student immediately for displaying the correct behavior.	“Thank you for turning around and facing forward. I appreciate that you’re following directions, Asia.”	Teacher fails to offer reinforcement.

• Evaluate and Adjust Contingent Instructions: Regularly evaluate your use of contingent instructions by asking yourself:
  • Has the student stopped the challenging behavior and started the more appropriate task? If not, consider whether your attention (while brief and corrective) serves as a reinforcer for the misbehavior.
  • Have I reinforced and praised the student once the desired behavior was shown? If so, you should see a change in future recurrence of the appropriate behavior.
  • Have I delivered the contingent instruction appropriately? If the student exhibits a more negative reaction, check the ratio of your positive-to-negative feedback to the student.
  • Am I swamped with a need for many contingent instructions? In this case, evaluate your rules, procedures, and consistency in enforcing consequences and revise as needed. Additionally, you might need to use rule reminders, reteach, or otherwise reinforce classroom rules and procedures.

About the Strategy

A group contingency is a reinforcement strategy that capitalizes on peer influence by setting a group goal or implementing a positive group consequence for desired (or target) behavior. This strategy can be used to increase the appropriate behavior of an individual or groups of students and, in turn, prevent or decrease inappropriate behaviors.

There are three types of group contingencies: dependent, independent, and interdependent. The table below includes definitions and examples for each.

Type	Definition	Example
Dependent	An individual or a small group earns a privilege or reward for their peers by behaving appropriately.	Susan earns five minutes of free time for the entire class because she did not argue with her partner during reading. Established goal: Not arguing with partner during reading Reward: Five minutes of free time Recipient: Entire class
Independent	Individuals earn reinforcement when they achieve a goal established for the group. The same contingency applies to each student, and the reward is the same for all students. However, one student’s behavior does not impact the group outcome.	Students earn tokens for lining up quietly to go to lunch. When they earn 10 tokens, they can choose a reinforcer from the prize box (e.g., small toys, stickers, fruit snacks). Established goal: Lining up quietly to go to lunch Reward: Tokens that can be exchanged for an item in the prize box Recipients: Students who meet the goal
Interdependent	The class, or a group within the class, earns a special reward when every individual in the identified group meets an established goal.	When the entire class is on time and seated at the beginning of history class for one week, every class member earns 10 minutes of free time at the end of class on Friday. Established goal: Entire class on time and seated at the beginning of history class for one week Reward: 10 minutes of free time at the end of class on Friday Recipient: Entire class

Source: Helton & Alber-Morgan, 2020; Simonsen & Myers, 2015; Smith & Revera, 1993; Smith & Yell, 2013

What the Research and Resources Say

• Group contingencies are more efficient than individual reinforcement systems because they address the behavior of multiple students and require less time to monitor (ibestt, 2017).
• Group contingencies can be used to manage the behavior of students in both small and large groups, across age groups, and across settings (Chow & Gilmour, 2016; Little et al., 2014; Smith & Yell, 2013).
• Group contingencies can encourage desired behaviors and address disruptive or other challenging behaviors without the necessity of providing reinforcement after every occurrence of the desired behavior (Simonsen & Myers, 2015).
• Group contingencies can be used to improve student social and academic outcomes (Chow & Gilmour, 2016).
• Changes in teacher behavior, including increased use of praise and positive behavior strategies, have occurred for those implementing group contingency programs (Chow & Gilmour, 2016).
• Each type of group contingency has pros and cons (Kauffman et al., 2002; Simonsen & Myers, 2015; Smith & Yell, 2013):

	Pros	Cons
Dependent	A student with low social standing can improve that status by earning rewards for the group. It can support classroom community.	Not earning the reward will worsen the student’s standing. Student earning the reward might not have interest in earning it for the group.
Independent	There is little risk of peer pressure.	There is minimal peer momentum, modeling, or camaraderie to support the desired behavior. Some students might not engage in a desired behavior because they are not interested in the reward or could become frustrated if they don’t regularly attain a reward.
Interdependent	It can leverage positive peer influence.	Students might complain about, sabotage, or harass others if they believe accountability is unequal or that the composition of groups is uneven in terms of their skills and abilities. Some students might feel embarrassed or inadequate if they do not meet the goal for the group reward.

• Interdependent and dependent contingencies are the most effective in reducing inappropriate behaviors (Gresham & Gresham, 1982).

Strategies to Implement

Identify the Target Behavior and Contingency Type

• Identify the behavior that needs to be changed.
• Select the appropriate and most advantageous contingency for the behavior.

  Tips

  • For changing a single behavior of one child, consider the dependent group contingency.
  • For changing the behavior of a group, select the independent or interdependent group contingency.

• Establish a reasonable performance standard for the attainment of the reward.
• Choose your groups carefully.

  Tips

  • Use similarly sized teams but ensure that there is a balance in student strengths and needs across groups.
  • Students in each group should be able to perform the target behavior(s) identified for the contingency plan.

Prepare to Implement the Contingency

• Determine how you will keep track of instances of appropriate behavior (e.g., use a chart, make tally marks on the board).
• Decide the criterion for meeting the goal (e.g., number of stickers on chart, number of tally marks).
• Identify the reward. Solicit student input (e.g., discussion, preference assessment) to identify potential rewards.
• Create a schedule for when students will receive the reward.
• Select a length of duration and schedule for the contingency.
• Communicate the criteria of the contingency with the class or group. This includes defining the contingency and the reward and using examples and non-examples to explain how to meet the established goal. At the same time, seek student commitment.

Implement the Contingency

• Begin using the contingency plan, making sure to remain consistent with your expectations.
• Be sure to keep track of instances of appropriate behavior, and deliver consequences in a timely manner.
• Praise students when they engage in appropriate behavior, and offer prompts or feedback when they do not meet the expectation.

Evaluate and Adjust the Contingency

• Collect data on the effectiveness of the strategy.
  • Decide whether your plan has been successful in improving (or decreasing) the behavior and consider other behaviors that need to be targeted.
  • Identify which students were successful in achieving the established goal. If some were not successful, examine your plan carefully and modify it accordingly.
• Determine how or whether you will continue to use the plan. Ask yourself:
  • Should I change the behavior(s) addressed?
  • Should I adjust or change the contingency?

Selected Research-Based Contingency Strategies

Outlined below are two interdependent group contingency strategies with a strong research base.

The Good Behavior Game

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is an interdependent group contingency strategy that promotes desirable behaviors through rewards and reduces disruptive and other undesirable behaviors. Since it was first introduced over 50 years ago, many variations of this program have been used successfully across different settings (e.g., library, cafeteria, classroom), with a range of students (preschool through high school, general and special education students), and with students from different backgrounds. To implement GBG, the teacher: Assigns each student to a team. (Note: Team leaders may be selected.) Sets a criterion for teams to meet in relation to a specific problem behavior (e.g., out of seat). Ensures that the class understands the appropriate behavior, which is the alternative to the problem behavior (e.g., remaining in seat during group instruction). This might involve review and demonstration. Explains the contingency system, which includes: How and when rule violations will be recorded (e.g., during large-group social studies instruction, each occurrence by any team member will be noted on the board under the team name) The target criterion for reduction (e.g., one or none) The reward (e.g., five minutes of free time at the end of the period) As instruction continues, marks any occurrences of rule violations (e.g., out of seat) under the team name displayed on the whiteboard. At the end of the designated time, reviews the team data based on the goal Provides rewards to teams meeting the goal. To learn more, view the following articles: Barrish, Saunders, & Wolf, 1969 Flower, , McKenna, J. W., Bunuan, R. L., Muething, C. S., & Vega, R., Jr., 2014 Lastrapes, R. E., 2013 Nolan, Houlihan, Wanzek, & Jenson, 2014 Tingstrom, H., Sterling-Turner, H. E., & Wilcznski, S. M., 2006 Wright, R. A., & McCurdy, B. L., 2012

Tootling

Tootling, which was first introduced more than 20 years ago, is a positive and proactive interdependent group contingency strategy that fosters encouragement through the provision of publicly shared peer praise notes recognizing positive student behaviors. Tootling is the inverse of tattling combined with a sense of “tooting your own horn.” Tootling has resulted in increased academic engagement and decreased disruptive behaviors. For students with internalizing behaviors, it is another strategy to address peer support. To implement tootling, the teacher: Explains the rationale and process for tootling by modeling and providing examples and non-examples. Initial instruction often includes students generating examples and practicing writing tootles. Identifies types of appropriate behaviors or skills, designates a goal for the class (e.g., a collective number of tootles or average number of tootles if using a group structure), and specifies the time frame, which might vary depending on the age or needs of the group. Identifies a reward for meeting the tootling goal. The teacher visibly keeps track of the number of tootles using a chart, graph, thermometer, or other display. Students can place their tootles on index cards or slips of paper into a container or other manner as appropriate. At the end of the time frame, provides an opportunity for a sampling of the tootles to be read aloud and shared with the class (optional). To learn more, view the following articles: Cihak, F., Kirk, E. R., & Boon, R. T., 2009 Lambert, M., Tingstrom, D. H., Sterling, H. E., Dufrene, B. A., & Lynne, S., 2015 Lastrapes, R. E., 2016 Lum, D. K., Tingstrom, D. H., Dufrene, B. A., Radley, K. C., & Lynne, S., 2017 Skinner, Kashwell, & Skinner, 2000

Background

Scenario

Kunj is an eighth grader whose off-task behaviors prevent him from completing his classwork. His records indicate that this has been a progressively serious issue since he was in the third grade. Currently, Kunj’s grade in social studies (and in most of his other classes) is 65%. He rarely completes assignments, and when he does, the work is haphazard and rushed, error filled, and lacking key information. His teacher reports the following types of off-task behaviors: talking to friends and neighbors, reading books and magazines, drawing and doodling, and daydreaming. These behaviors occur most often during independent work times but also sometimes during large-group or whole-class activities. Having reviewed Kunj’s completed assignments and his class participation in group activities, his social studies teacher believes he is capable of doing grade-level work and has decided that Kunj will achieve the following goals within six weeks:

• Complete and turn in 100% of all assignments
• Earn scores of 80% or higher on all completed assignments

Possible Strategies

• Behavior-specific praise
• Criterion-specific rewards
• Choice making

Assignment

1. Read the STAR Sheets on the possible strategies listed above
2. Write a summary of each strategy, including its purpose.
3. Describe why each strategy might be used to help Kunj meet one or more of his goals.

Background

Scenario

A third grader in Ms. Reyes’s classroom of 24 students, Heather enjoys school and often arrives early to spend time on the playground with friends. Ms. Reyes, however, is concerned about the disruptions that Heather has been causing in class. She calls out answers during whole-group instruction, interrupts others during class discussion, and talks to neighbors during independent work. For 25 minutes each day, Heather and two of her peers receive intensive math instruction in the resource room. Notably, Heather’s resource room teacher has not observed any of these behaviors. With all this in mind, Ms. Reyes sets the following goals for Heather for the next nine weeks:

• Raise her hand and wait to be called on before speaking during whole-group instruction
• Decrease interruptions during class discussions
• Complete independent work quietly

Possible Strategies

• Rules
• Contingent instructions
• Group contingency

Assignment

1. Read the STAR Sheets on the possible strategies listed above.
2. Write a summary of each strategy, including its purpose.
3. Describe why each strategy might be used to help Heather meet one or more of her goals.

Background

Scenario

Garrison loves hands-on science activities almost as much as he loves dinosaurs, robots, and computer games. Garrison also likes playing with building blocks and has sometimes even brought some from home to share with his peers. Unfortunately, Garrison is failing his grade-level requirements in reading and math—despite testing at grade level in both areas—and his parents and teacher are becoming increasingly concerned.

Garrison has an identified learning disability and receives specialized instruction in written expression, which is provided by the special education teacher during small-group intensive instruction time. He grows easily frustrated when he has to write assignments in any subject, but he has a computer available to use in the classroom as needed. His second-grade teacher, Mr. McGrady, believes Garrison is capable of doing the work required in class. Mr. McGrady has noted that Garrison participates in class discussions and hands-on activities; however, he avoids and rarely starts assignments by himself. Mr. McGrady reports that while other students begin assignments promptly, Garrison can be found fiddling with building blocks or drawing robots and superheroes. Getting Garrison started on most independent assignments is like pulling teeth, and even when he does get started, he usually only completes around 60% of his work. Based on this information, Mr. McGrady has selected these goals for Garrison to achieve within the next three months:

• Begin independent work assignments promptly
• Complete at least 85% of independent assignments

Possible Strategies

• Behavior-specific praise
• Criterion-specific rewards
• Choice making
• Rules
• Contingent instructions
• Group contingency

Assignment

1. Read the STAR Sheets on the possible strategies listed above.
2. Select one strategy you feel would best address one or both of Garrison’s goals.
3. Explain why you selected this strategy.
4. Describe how you would implement the strategy in your classroom as well as any cautions pertaining to its use.

Background

Scenario

A ninth grader who recently moved to the community with her family, Ellie is quiet and withdrawn. She doesn’t appear to have made many new friends and often sits alone in the back of the classroom, where she avoids volunteering responses, offering ideas, or taking part in class discussions. Though she completes most, if not all, of the independent work required of her, Ellie does not actively participate in partner or cooperative learning activities. She avoids group interactions by reading or drawing quietly or by asking to be excused to go to the restroom, her locker, or the office. From all the information the teachers have gathered and their observations, Ellie appears to be able to read and write at grade level.

Mrs. Salinas, Ellie’s English teacher, becomes concerned when Ellie’s failure to participate in group activities begins to cause resentment among her peers. Some students say they don’t want to be placed in a group with Ellie because “She won’t help, and it just drags us down. It’s like she doesn’t even know we’re there.” This problem is also beginning to affect Ellie’s grade in English class, where numerous semester competencies and assignments require peer and group interaction. There are upcoming small-group book study activities and peer editing and writing support groups. Mrs. Salinas believes Ellie is capable of the work and sets the following goals for her to achieve by the end of the semester:

• Increase her participation in class discussions and conversations
• Actively participate within literature discussion activities and peer editing or writing groups

Possible Strategies

• Behavior-specific praise
• Criterion-specific rewards
• Choice making
• Rules
• Contingent instructions
• Group contingency

Assignment

1. Review each of the STAR Sheets on the possible strategies listed above.
2. Select one strategy that you feel would best address one or both of Ellie’s goals.
3. Explain why you selected this strategy.
4. Describe how you would implement the strategy in your classroom, as well as any cautions that might be relevant to its use.

Background

Scenario

Jayden is one of 18 children in a full-day kindergarten class. Always on the move and interested in everything happening around him, Jayden can frequently be found exploring the classroom’s several learning centers. One of his favorites is the science inquiry corner, where the children build ramp structures to test ideas about motion and movement, among other activities. He also likes the play-based literacy center, where the theme, props, supporting picture books, and writing tools change monthly. This month’s theme is a veterinarian clinic, which includes stuffed animals, pet bowls and beds, a birdcage, a toy stethoscope and thermometer, and an appointment calendar to record incoming patients.

Jayden’s teacher, Ms. Chen, has noticed that Jayden wanders off to one of these centers more than a few times a day, especially during writer’s workshop, reading mini-lessons and practice, and math activities. This happens most often when she is leading small-group instruction, particularly when Jayden is not part of that group. Jayden now has a pile of unfinished learning activities and artifacts the teacher uses to assess and share his learning progress. What’s more, Jayden’s play in these centers is distracting for the other children, resulting in a ripple effect of off-task behavior.

Ms. Chen has also recorded several instances when Jayden was reluctant to leave the centers upon request or during a scheduled center transition time. Her notes include observations of Jayden crying to protest leaving a center, ignoring verbal requests to do so, and carrying away one of the play props when he finally does leave.

Ms. Chen has decided to set the following goals for Jayden for the next six weeks:

• Increase completion of independent learning activities
• Improve following of directions for center use and transitions
• Remain at learning activity unless given permission to do otherwise

Possible Strategies

• Behavior-specific praise
• Criterion-specific rewards
• Choice making
• Rules
• Contingent instructions
• Group contingency

Assignment

1. Review each of the STAR Sheets on the possible strategies listed above.
2. Select one strategy that you feel would best address at least two of Jayden’s goals.
3. Explain why you selected this strategy.
4. Describe how you would implement this strategy in your classroom and any cautions pertaining to its use.

Background

Scenario

Patrick and Zach are fifth graders in Mrs. Anderson’s class. The class has 25 students—13 boys and 12 girls—three of whom have identified disabilities and receive intensive instruction with a special education teacher. Zach, who has a specific learning disability (SLD) in reading, is one of these students. He receives 30 minutes of specialized daily instruction to address reading goals set by his special education teacher. Zach likes math and especially enjoyed a recent unit in geometry. Typically quiet during independent work time, Zach shows a tendency toward arguing and name-calling when paired with other students, Patrick in particular.

For his part, Patrick enjoys taking part in classroom skits and plays. He likes to tell funny stories, often quite loudly, and being in the limelight. An average student academically, Patrick participates in community sports and especially likes softball. Other students complain that he doesn’t stop talking during class discussions and that he tends to call out unrelated or inappropriate information. When he works in pairs (especially with Zach), Patrick often teases his partner with name-calling and hurtful comments. When Zach or another student inevitably asks him to stop, Patrick instead starts an argument.

All these classroom disruptions have Mrs. Anderson on the verge of pulling her hair out. Patrick and Zach appear to be at each other constantly. Not only do they get off task at these times, but the rest of the class is soon drawn into the spectator sport. Unfortunately, little classroom work or instruction gets done during these disruptions.

Assignment

1. Think about Patrick’s and Zach’s For each student:
   1. Develop two critical goals and list them in order of priority
   2. Note the goal you will address
   3. Identify one or two strategies you could use to address one of your goals
   4. Explain why you selected these strategies
2. Review the strategies you identified in 1c for each Then:
   1. Choose one strategy to implement immediately
   2. Justify your selection and discuss what information you used to support it
   3. Describe how you would implement this strategy if you were the classroom teacher
   4. List any potential cautions or considerations

Note: To help organize your answers for Question 1, we recommend using a table similar to the one below.

	Zach	Patrick
Critical Goals
Goal to Address
Strategies/Rationales	1 2	1 2

Note: To help organize your answers for Question 2, we recommend using a table similar to the one below.

	Zach	Patrick
Strategy to Implement Immediately
Justification
Implementation
Possible Cautions or Considerations

Background

Scenario

Mr. Azarian’s first-period World History, Culture, and Geography class has just wrapped up its first nine weeks of the semester. This is Mr. Azarian’s first year teaching at an urban school composed of students from many different backgrounds, and he’s noticed that things in this class don’t seem to be flowing as smoothly as he’d prefer. In fact, it’s his most difficult class. Because his 26 students have a broad range of interests, backgrounds, abilities, literacy skills, and motivations, Mr. Azarian has implemented a variety of teaching strategies to engage them in his lessons: using primary sources, incorporating high-interest topics, making connections to current issues, and using technology. In addition to implementing classroom rules, Mr. Azarian regularly updates his online grade book and emails weekly report cards to parents upon request. Despite these attempts to keep his students engaged, informed, and motivated, his first-period discussions often get off track and at times end disastrously. Strong opinions from a handful of students dominate the conversation and intimidate others. A few other students ramble on about irrelevant and inappropriate topics that just waste time.

Mr. Azarian is especially concerned about three students who seem to be on a collision course with failure: Derek, Tyeria, and Mateo. Poor test scores and incomplete or missing class and homework assignments have stockpiled for Derek and Mateo. All three students exhibit challenging and undesirable behaviors.

Derek:

Derek seemed to have things together for the first few weeks of the semester. He joined the school’s martial arts club, had almost saved enough for a new phone, and appeared to enjoy most of his classes. He’d hoped to take Mr. Azarian’s third-period class with some of his friends, but the schedule didn’t work out. During the first three weeks of class, Derek did well enough. He completed his homework assignments and took part in most class discussions. However, things started taking a turn for the worse. When asked to support his arguments with facts and examples during large- and small-group discussions, Derek has started to become loud and argumentative, saying things like, “Why are you always picking me apart? My ideas are just as good as anyone else’s! That’s just your opinion!” With Derek, there isn’t any middle ground. He is either argumentative or does not participate in discussion at all. Mr. Azarian has tried to encourage him with supportive comments during discussions and by touching base with him after class, but he hasn’t succeeded in changing Derek’s behavior so far. Then four weeks before the end of the quarter, Derek stopped turning in homework assignments. His project and class assignments are at 62%. When his last test was returned, Derek wadded it up, shouted a few profanities, and stormed out of the classroom, slamming the door as he went. For this, he received an office referral.

Tyeria:

Tyeria is rarely without her entourage. She is a leader among her friends, just not always in the right way. Tyeria has good grades in her other classes and is involved in several school activities as well as in the community. Before first period, a group of students typically gathers outside the classroom with Tyeria at the center. The ruckus often travels to the classroom, and even after the bell has rung, their chatter creeps into a good chunk of instructional time. Mr. Azarian has tried humor, reminders, and requests. Nothing has worked. Tyeria typically takes the longest to settle down and always has to have the last word, saying things like, “We’re not doing anything important, so just let me finish. Hang on, I just have to say that…” Things began to escalate right before the end of the first grading period. The disruptions became more frequent and louder, often continuing throughout the entire class period. As a result, Tyeria’s participation grade took a nosedive. After recently seeing a 68% on her online grade report, Tyeria let Mr. Azarian know quite clearly and loudly that she thought he wasn’t being fair.

Mateo:

Mateo is almost invisible in class. He usually comes in right as the bell rings and remains mostly quiet throughout class. He has six absences already this semester and has missed one test and several assignments. As such, it’s been difficult for him to catch up. When Mr. Azarian talked to Mateo earlier in the semester about his concerns, Mateo shared that he works part time at a neighborhood restaurant two to three evenings a week and on the weekend. When he isn’t at work, he takes care of his siblings after school due to his mother’s work schedule. Mateo hopes to attend college and perhaps study business or architecture, but he isn’t sure this will be possible. Mr. Azarian noticed that when Mateo is in class, he does a great job contributing to the small-group in-class projects and assignments. For the first grading period, Mateo has a 64% due to his missing homework assignments, poor attendance, and low test scores. Mateo admits he’s frustrated and doesn’t know how to keep up or what to do when he gets behind.

Assignment

1. For the class as a whole and for each of the three identified students (Derek, Tyeria, and Mateo):
   1. Outline a list of specific behaviors of concern
   2. Identify any strategies (if any) that Azarian has used and describe their outcomes
   3. Create a priority list of two goals
2. From the list of goals you created for 1c, choose the highest-priority goal for the class and for each student. Then:
   1. Identify one or two strategies you could use to address these goals
   2. Offer a rationale for why you selected each strategy
   3. Describe how you would implement each strategy
   4. List potential cautions or considerations for each strategy

Note: To help organize your answers for Question 1, we recommend using a table similar to the one below.

	Class	Derek	Tyeria	Mateo
Behaviors of Concern
Strategies Used/ Outcomes
Goals

Note: To help organize your answers for Question 2, we recommend using a table similar to the one below. You will need a separate table for the class and for each student.

Class/Student
Goal:
Strategy	Rationale	Implementation	Cautions/Considerations
Strategy 1
Strategy 2

The contents of this resource were developed under a grant from the U.S. Department of Education, #H325E120002. However, those contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the U.S. Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government. Project Officer, Anna Macedonia.

Credits

Content Contributors Christina M. Curran Case Study Developers Kim Skow Pam Lehman Sara Ioannou Editors Jason Miller Nicholas Shea

Reviewers Ed Emmer Pamela Kramer Ertel Kim Paulsen Sarah Powell Paul Riccomini Richard Milner Webmaster John Harwood Graphics Photos Shutterstock

Licensure and Content Standards

This IRIS Case Study aligns with the following licensure and program standards and topic areas.

Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)

CEC standards encompass a wide range of ethics, standards, and practices created to help guide those who have taken on the crucial role of educating students with disabilities.

• Standard 2: Learning Environments

Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC)

InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards are designed to help teachers of all grade levels and content areas to prepare their students either for college or for employment following graduation.

• Standard 3: Learning Environments

The Division for Early Childhood Recommended Practices (DEC)

The DEC Recommended Practices are designed to help improve the learning outcomes of young children (birth through age five) who have or who are at-risk for developmental delays or disabilities.

• Topic 5: Instruction

* For an answer key to this case study, please email your full name, title, and institutional affiliation to the IRIS Center at [email protected].