Case Study

Written Expression: Grades 2–5

Introduction

This case study set presents a number of writing strategies for helping students in the elementary and middle-school grades who struggle with writing. In order for students to benefit from instruction in written expression they must possess some prerequisite skills. These are:

• Transcription skills: handwriting and spelling
• Grammar skills: knowledge of sentence form and structure

Students who struggle with writing often demonstrate little knowledge of the process involved. Specifically, these students have difficulty with what are called the lower-level skills (e.g., handwriting, spelling, or grammar) as well as the higher-level skills (e.g., idea formulation and topic selection, planning, producing, or organizing and revising text).

The preferred method of implementing the strategies outlined in this case study set is to use the Self-Regulation Strategy Development (SRSD) model, which, as the title implies, requires students to utilize self-regulation strategies. For those without this knowledge, we recommend that you view the IRIS Modules:

• SRSD: Using Learning Tips for Enhance Student Learning
• SOS: Helping Students Become Independent Learners

SRSD is a research-validated model that involves explicitly and systematically teaching a strategy. Though the SRSD model is sequential in nature, it nevertheless allows teachers to revisit stages of the process when the learning needs of their students require them to do so. The SRSD model is composed of the following stages:

Stages of the SRSD Model
Stage 1: Develop and Activate Background Knowledge	Before teaching any tips for students, teachers should evaluate students’ skills (e.g., task analyze writing skills—Are students able to write and spell with reasonable fluency? Can students name and describe the parts of a story?).
Stage 2: Discuss the Strategy	Talk with the students about the strategy you are going to teach them. Discuss its advantages, how it can help them in their assignments, and when it should be used.
Stage 3: Model the Strategy	The teacher talks aloud throughout modeling as he or she goes over the steps in the strategy, describes what the students will do at each step, and demonstrates how the strategy is used. (Note: It is often helpful for the teacher to use a script.)
Stage 4: Memorize the Strategy	Make sure that students memorize the steps and procedures in the strategy.
Stage 5: Support the Strategy	Practice using the strategy with the students. For example, a student and teacher could write a story collaboratively. Initially, the teacher will support the implementation of the strategy. Over time, the teacher will decrease this support.
Stage 6: Independent Performance	Evaluate the students’ ability to independently apply the strategy. To support generalization of the strategy, the students should be given opportunities to apply the strategy in different contexts (e.g., different classes). To support maintenance of the strategy, the students should be asked to apply the strategy in the weeks and months after instruction.

Self-Regulation Strategies Key Ideas

Self-regulation is the ability to control one’s behavior. When used in conjunction with learning in the classroom, it is the method or procedure that learners use to manage their learning. Students who practice self-regulation strategies are often more active participants in their learning, aware of their thought processes, motivated, and independent. Self-regulation includes four areas, which can be used independently or in combination:

• Self-monitoring – a technique that requires students to keep track of their progress and record the results.
• Self-instruction – a technique that involves students talking themselves through a task or activity (e.g., “I can do it!”, “First, I pick my topic.”).
• Goal setting – a technique in which the student and the teacher determine what the student is trying to achieve and how to get there.
• Self-reinforcement – a technique in which students select reinforcers and reward themselves for reaching or exceeding a criterion.

Note: Research indicates that the SRSD model is more effective at improving writing performance than are all other instructional approaches. We recommend the use of this model to teach the writing strategies that are presented in this case study set.

Each case study includes multiple STAR Sheets and cases.

About the Strategy

Planning and organizing is a necessary pre-writing exercise that includes knowing the components of the writing assignment, selecting a topic, and brainstorming ideas to include in the composition.

Narratives are stories that can be presented in different ways (e.g., short story, drama, song). Narrative elements include sequential story events—typically about something specific—and a character whose actions are mitigated by an intention or need. Finally, an unforeseen occurrence might transpire, resulting in a dilemma for the character.

What the Research and Resources Say

• Researchers have found that when students have specific knowledge about writing elements (e.g., the parts of a story) their writing development and quality increases (Olinghouse & Graham, 2009).
• Students in primary grades do not spend sufficient writing time planning and revising connected text. Their writing improves when they are taught these skills (Cutler & Graham, 2008).
• One of the most common types of writing assignments in which primary grade students participate is narrative writing (Cutler & Graham, 2008).
• Compared to their peers, struggling writers, including those with learning disabilities, have difficulty planning and organizing their writing and benefit from using writing strategies (Saddler & Graham, 2005; Baker et al., 2003).

Strategies to Implement

The following strategies help students to systematically plan and organize their narratives. When used with the SRSD model, these strategies have been scientifically validated and have been shown to improve students’ narratives and story writing.

POW + WWW, What = 2, How = 2

POW + WWW, What = 2, How = 2 is a strategy that helps students write better stories. The POW component of the strategy is designed to help students pick their idea, organize (i.e., plan), and write their story. The WWW, What = 2, How = 2 component is intended to help students organize their notes (the “O” in POW).

POW + C-SPACE

The POW + C-SPACE strategy is designed to help students develop a writing plan and think about the details that should be included in stories. The POW component of the strategy is designed to help students to pick their idea, organize (i.e., plan), and write their story. The C-SPACE component of the strategy is designed to help students to organize their notes (the “O” in POW).

Graphic organizer for WWW, What = 2, How = 2

Examples

Cue cards for C-SPACE

Tips for Implementation

• Increase the frequency of writing assignments. Writing proficiency is a predictor of academic success for students in school, and it increases student knowledge.
• Teach and use varied vocabulary with students to increase effective writing.
• After students have completed a narrative, instruct them to label its elements (e.g., setting, characters, feelings) to ensure that they have included the necessary components.
• Allow students to use graphic organizers to help plan or organize their stories.
• Make cue cards to help students to plan or organize their stories.

• Students may lack background knowledge necessary for writing a narrative.
• In some cases, students may have knowledge on a topic but fail to activate this background knowledge.
• Students must understand specific concepts related to writing narratives (e.g., sequence of events, problem or conflict, resolution) in order to be successful writers.

About the Strategy

Planning and organizing is a necessary pre-writing exercise that involves knowing the components of the writing assignment, selecting a topic, and brainstorming ideas to include in the composition.

Persuasive writing is a type of writing that informs the audience (e.g., teacher, peers) of the writer’s opinion or thoughts about a specific topic.

What the Research and Resources Say

• Students in primary grades do not spend sufficient writing time planning and revising connected text. Their writing improves when they are taught these skills (Cutler & Graham, 2008).
• Compared to their peers, students who struggle with writing, including those with learning disabilities, have difficulty planning and organizing their writing and benefit from using writing strategies (Baker et al., 2003).
• Though persuasive writing assignments are used less frequently with students in the primary grades, students in these grades can learn to use persuasive writing (Cutler & Graham, 2008).
• Young students are capable of understanding writing for an audience (e.g., teacher, self, peer), an important feature of writing persuasive essays (Dray et al., 2009).
• When producing persuasive text, students are able to pull from their understanding of an important social issue (Dray et al., 2009).
• By the time many students graduate from high school, they do not have the writing skills they need in college or in the work force (Achieve, 2005; Kiuhara et al., 2009).

Strategies to Implement

The following strategies help students to systematically plan and write persuasive essays. These strategies have been scientifically validated and have been shown to improve students’ writing.

POW + TREE

POW + TREE is a strategy that helps students to convey their opinions in their essays. The POW component of the strategy is designed to help students pick their idea, organize (i.e., plan), and write their story. The TREE component is intended to help students organize their notes (the “O” in POW).

STOP and DARE

STOP and DARE is another strategy students can use to plan and organize persuasive essays. The strategy has two mnemonics components, which are designed to emphasize reflection and planning. The STOP mnemonic helps students to plan and organize their persuasive essays.

Suspend Judgment: Students consider each side of the topic before taking a position.
Take a Side: Determine which side will have the strongest argument or which side you believe in.
Organize Ideas: Select ideas that make powerful arguments by putting an asterisk next to the ideas that you want to be sure and use. Identify several arguments that you will refute. Put your ideas in numerical order.
Plan More as You Write: Keep planning as you continue to write.

Use the DARE mnemonic as a reminder to use all of the components of a good essay.

Develop a Topic Sentence
Add supporting Ideas
Reject Arguments for the Opposing Side
End with a Conclusion

(Adapted from Powerful Writing Strategies for All Students, by K. R. Harris, S. Graham, L. Mason, and B. Friedlander, 2008, p. 223)

Examples

Graphic organizer for the TREE component of the POW+TREE strategy

Cue cards with transition words that students can use in their persuasive essays

Tips for Implementation

• Make sure that students understand the elements of a persuasive essay. When students are organizing their notes, ask them to recall and be sure to include these elements.
• Remind students that the topic sentence reveals the writer’s opinion as well as what the essay will be about.
• Allow students to use graphic organizers to help plan or organize their persuasive essays.
• Make cue cards to help students to plan or organize their persuasive essays.

• Strategies such as STOP and DARE are commonly combined with self-regulation strategies. See the introduction to this module to learn more about using the Self-Regulation Strategy Development model.
• When students understand both sides of the argument, it helps them to further develop their counter argument.
• Good writers plan before they begin. Good planning leads to better arguments.
• Taking part in pre-writing activities helps students to generate ideas about what they already know about their topic.

About the Strategy

Revising is the process of adding, deleting, or changing written text for the purpose of improving clarity and cohesion. It is a critical part of writing a composition. This process consists of:

• Identifying a discrepancy between the text and the writer’s intent
• Determining the problem and deciding what should be changed and how to change it
• Making the changes

What the Research and Resources Say

• Students in primary grades do not spend sufficient writing time planning and revising connected text. Their writing improves when they are taught these skills (Cutler & Graham, 2008).
• Skilled writers edit and revise their writing by making content revisions, editing their spelling, capitalization, and punctuation, and by improving the overall appearance of their writing; whereas, less skilled writers tend not to review or make such corrections (Saddler & Graham, 2007).
• Students who struggle with writing, including those with learning disabilities, typically have trouble with the revision process (Graham & Harris, 2003).

Strategies to Implement

There are a number of revising strategies that help students to revise written compositions. This section contains scientifically validated strategies that help students revise their writing.

Compare, Diagnose, Operate

The Compare, Diagnose, Operate strategy helps students to revise their compositions. Students can use this strategy to revise their own writing or that of their peers. This strategy consists of four steps as outlined below:

Compare: Read the text.

Find sentences in which you can add to, delete, or move sentences.

Diagnose: What is wrong?

Something doesn’t sound quite right!
The intention was not made.
The essay is out of sequence.
The reader may not understand what was meant.
The text is drifting from the main point.
The idea is incomplete or weak.

Operate: What do I need to do?

Add more information (details, examples).
Omit a particular part of the text (phrase, sentence).
Rewrite the text in different way.
Rearrange the wording.

Operate: Do it!

Make the revisions.

(Adapted from Powerful Writing Strategies for All Students, by K. R. Harris, S. Graham, L. Mason, and B. Friedlander, 2008, p. 299)

The Six Steps for Revising (including SCAN)

The Six Steps for Revising strategy, including SCAN, is used for revising persuasive essays. The SCAN strategy is embedded in the Six Steps in order to help students to check each of their sentences for clarity, relevance, and grammar errors.

(Adapted from Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Mason, L., & Friedlander, B., 2008, p. 281)

WRITER

WRITER is a strategy that addresses revisions for any type of writing. It contains the sub-strategy COPS to help with surface revisions (i.e., capitalization, punctuation, spelling, and overall appearance).

Examples

Cue card for COPS

Cue cards for SCAN

(Adapted from Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Mason, L., & Friedlander, B., 2008, p. 281)

Tips for Implementation

• Evaluate students’ knowledge of writing. Students who struggle with writing, including those with learning disabilities, may lack the knowledge to determine whether important components of a genre (e.g., settings or topic sentences) are missing.
• Evaluate the extent to which the students realize that they are writing for an audience (e.g., teacher, peer) and that, depending on that audience, they we might write differently.
• Remind students that good writers revise their work—and good writing can improve grades!
• Teach students how to use the caret symbol (^) to show when they want to add information to their compositions.
• Help students understand that sometimes writers do not write what they intended to say.
• When students comment that an essay does not need any revisions, help them to understand that most writing can be improved.
• Cue cards can be used to support students in revising their compositions.

• Students may lack an awareness of their audience (e.g., teacher, self, peer).
• The revision process can occur at any time during writing, and revisions can range from surface level (e.g., spelling, punctuation) to those that involve additions, reorganizations, or changes to the meaning of text.
• Language difficulties (e.g., expressing ideas, limited vocabulary) may inhibit effective editing.

Background

Scenario

Corey is an enthusiastic second grader with a good vocabulary. He enjoys writing but has difficulty organizing his narratives into a complete story. He also has difficulty staying on topic, tending instead to string related thoughts and ideas together without considering his intended purpose.

As the school year has progressed, Corey’s teacher, Mr. Brandt, has become concerned about the lack of progress with Corey’s narrative writing skills. He decides to teach Corey a narrative writing strategy to help him achieve the following goal:

• Given a narrative writing prompt, Corey will write a complete story.

Possible Strategies

• Planning and Organizing Strategies: Narratives

Assignment

1. Read the Introduction and the Planning and Organizing Strategies: Narratives STAR Sheet for the possible strategies.
2. Describe the POW + WWW, What = 2, How = 2 and the POW + C-SPACE writing strategies.
3. Explain how each writing strategy could help Corey to meet his goal.

Background

Scenario

Kaynia is an active girl who plays well with others and demonstrates great physical vigor. Kaynia’s performance is satisfactory in most content areas; however, she has a difficult time during writing class. A focus of Kaynia’s third-grade writing class is persuasive essay writing. Although most of her peers are able to write persuasive essays, Kaynia is quite frustrated. She has good ideas but is not able to clearly articulate her point of view.

Kaynia’s teacher remembers a staff development on Strategy Instruction she attended and decides to teach Kaynia a persuasive essay writing strategy she learned during it. Kaynia’s teacher has the following instructional goal:

• Given a writing prompt, Kaynia will write a persuasive essay, clearly articulating her point of view and providing supporting arguments.

Possible Strategies

• Planning and Organizing Strategies: Persuasive Essays

Assignment

1. Read the Introduction and the Planning and Organizing Strategies: Persuasive Essays STAR Sheet for the possible strategies.
2. Describe the POW + TREE and the STOP and DARE strategies.
3. Explain how each writing strategy could help Kaynia meet her goal.
4. How can the POW+TREE graphic organizer shown on the STAR Sheet help Kaynia to monitor her use of the strategy?

Background

Scenario

Jessica likes school and especially enjoys sharing personal experiences with her class. Her teacher, Mrs. Tracy, has noticed how frustrated Jessica becomes when she is given a narrative writing assignment. Despite Jessica’s confidence in verbally communicating each idea, she appears to go “blank” when given the task of planning and organizing her narrative.

Mrs. Tracy has taught the writing process to her class, but Jessica continues to struggle, and Mrs. Tracy has become concerned with her lack of progress. The state’s high-stakes writing assessments are largely based on a student’s ability to plan/ organize and write a high-quality narrative. Mrs. Tracy brings her concern to the fourth-grade team, which in turn suggests that she teach Jessica a strategy specifically for writing narratives. Mrs. Tracy has the following instructional goal:

• Given a narrative writing prompt, Jessica will write a complete narrative.

Possible Activities

• Planning and Organizing Strategies: Narratives

Assignment

1. Read the Introduction and the Planning and Organizing Strategies: Narratives STAR Sheet for the possible strategies.
2. Explain how each strategy could be used to assist Jessica in reaching her instructional goal.
3. Considering Jessica’s strengths and the curricular demands, which strategy do you feel would be more appropriate and why?

Background

Scenario

Henry is an outgoing boy who does well in all his classes; however, recently he has been demonstrating some negative behaviors in writing class. Henry’s teacher, Ms. Faz, has heard (on multiple occasions) Henry saying, “I can’t do this! I hate writing!”

During a conference with Henry, he tells Ms. Faz that he used to like to write, but this year the assignments seem a lot harder. When the teacher gives him a writing assignment, he has no idea where to begin.

Ms. Faz has the following instructional goal:

• Given a writing prompt, Henry will write a persuasive essay, clearly articulating his point of view, providing supporting arguments, and refuting opposing arguments.

Possible Activities

• Planning and Organizing Strategies: Persuasive Essays

Assignment

1. Read the Introduction and the Planning and Organizing Strategies: Persuasive Essays STAR Sheet for the possible strategies.
2. Explain how each of the two writing strategies could be used to assist Henry in reaching his instructional goal.
3. Ms. Faz was planning to teach her students the STOP and DARE strategy. Do you think this strategy will help Henry met his goal? Why or why not?
4. Decide on two self-regulatory statements that Ms. Faz could use when modeling the strategy for Henry.

Background

Scenario

Ja’Min is something of a reclusive boy who enjoys reading and playing by himself. He is serious about his schoolwork and will on occasion participate in class discussions. Ja’Min does well in most of his classes, but he has difficulty in writing class. When it comes to writing, he appears to use effective Tips for plan/ organize and to draft his compositions; however, when it comes to revising his compositions, he tends to focus on the mechanics of writing (i.e., handwriting, spelling, punctuation, grammar, and format) rather than clarity of meaning. Ja’Min has difficulty making adjustments to his written compositions to ensure that they communicate his full intent.

His teacher is concerned that, if uncorrected, Ja’Min’s current difficulties might eventually affect his performance in other classes. As he moves up in grades, his ability to communicate effectively through written language becomes increasingly important. Ja’Min’s teacher has the following instructional goals:

• Ja’Min will revise a previously written composition while keeping in mind his audience (e.g., teacher, peers).
• Ja’Min will revise a previously written composition to better communicate his intentions.

Possible Strategies

• Revising Strategies

Assignment

1. Read the Revising Strategies STAR Sheet for the possible strategies.
2. Decide which of Ja’Min’s goals you would address first and explain why.
3. Identify a strategy and explain why or how it will assist Ja’Min in reaching his goals.

Background

Scenario

Terrence is a new student in Mr. Fossberg’s fifth-grade class. His father is in the military, and Terrence has attended four schools in the past six years. He has adapted well socially and has many new friends. He has a positive attitude toward school and does well in most of his classes. He does especially well in math and science; however, he is demonstrating serious deficits in writing. He has great transcription skills (i.e., spelling, handwriting, and grammar), but when it comes to composing a written composition he does not appear to have much experience.

When given a writing assignment, Terrence is able to come up with terrific ideas; however, he does not organize his thoughts and ideas into a coherent composition. He tends to engage in “knowledge telling”—that is, his writing consists of free associations that are hard for anyone but him to understand. Terrence also writes without considering organization, goals, or audience. He said that none of the schools he had attended taught writing the same way, and he was confused about what he was supposed to do.

His teacher, Mr. Fossberg, is concerned. Writing is an important part of the fifth-grade curriculum, and all of his other students know strategies to plan/ organize, write, edit, and revise their compositions. Mr. Fossberg is particularly concerned about Terrence’s ability to write a persuasive essay, part of the school’s fifth-grade promotional requirements. Mr. Fossberg consulted with the school’s learning specialist. She gave him some information on strategy instruction in written expression and self-regulation.

Areas of Strength

• Has a positive attitude
• Has great transcription skills
• Does well academically and is a hard worker
• Understands the importance of learning to write a complete, high-quality narrative
• Is willing to try strategies to improve his writing skills

Assignment

1. Develop an instructional goal for Terrence.
2. Choose a combination of one planning/ organizing strategy and one revising strategy to assist Terrence in meeting his instructional goal.
3. Provide a rationale for teaching Terrence each strategy.
4. Choose one strategy. Explain how you would use the six-step SRSD model to teach Terrence this strategy.

Background

Scenario

Margarita is well-liked by her teachers and peers. Her teachers describe her as hardworking with a positive attitude. Margarita does well overall in her classes, although, last year she began to demonstrate some frustration with the increased amount of writing that was required. Margarita does a nice job planning, organizing, and drafting persuasive essays, but when it comes to revising, she tends to have difficulty. She says, “I don’t know what else to do. I’ve already written my paper.”

Her teacher, Miss Meyer, is concerned that if she cannot teach Margarita to effectively revise her compositions, her writing assignments will become increasingly difficult. Miss Meyer knows that the writing and revising of compositions is a large part of the third-grade curriculum and future high-stakes assessments.

Areas of Strength

• Has a positive attitude toward writing
• Is a hard worker
• Understands that she needs to improve her writing skills
• Is willing to try strategies to improve her writing skills

Assignment

1. Develop an instructional goal for Margarita related to revising her writing.
2. Determine which strategy you think would be most appropriate in assisting Margarita in achieving the instructional goal. Provide a rationale for your choice.
3. What self-regulation strategy would be the most beneficial for Margarita? Explain.
4. Describe how you would teach the self-regulation strategy you chose to Margarita.

The contents of this resource were developed under a grant from the U.S. Department of Education, #H325E120002. However, those contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the U.S. Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government. Project Officer, Anna Macedonia.

Credits

Content Contributors Torri Lienemann PhD Robert Reid Case Study Developer Zina Yzquierdo Editors Jason Miller Nicholas Shea

Reviewers Susan DeLa Paz Brucer Saddler Linda Mason Graphics Erik Dunton Pages 2 & 7—Adapted from “Powerful Writing Strategies for All Students, by K. R. Harris, S. Graham, L. Mason, and B. Friedlander, 2008, p. 116; graphics by Jason Phelan/IRIS Clipart: Microsoft Clipart Page 15 – Adapted from Harris, K., R., Graham, S. Mason, L., & Friedlander, B., 2008, p. 281, Graphics by Erik Dunton/IRIS Webmaster John Harwood

Licensure and Content Standards

This IRIS Case Study aligns with the following licensure and program standards and topic areas.

Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)

CEC standards encompass a wide range of ethics, standards, and practices created to help guide those who have taken on the crucial role of educating students with disabilities.

• Standard 5: Instructional Planning and Strategies

Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC)

InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards are designed to help teachers of all grade levels and content areas to prepare their students either for college or for employment following graduation.

• Standard 8: Instructional Strategies

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