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  • Executive Functions (Part 1): Understanding Why Some Students Struggle
Challenge
Initial Thoughts
Perspectives & Resources

Why do some students struggle with learning and completing tasks?

  • 1: Characteristics of Successful and Struggling Learners
  • 2: Importance of Teaching Study Skills Strategies

How can teachers effectively teach study skills strategies?

  • 3: Models for Teaching Strategies
  • 4: Considerations When Teaching Strategies

Resources

  • 5: References, Additional Resources, and Credits
Wrap Up
Assessment
Provide Feedback

Resources

Page 5: References, Additional Resources, and Credits

To cite this module, please use the following:

The IRIS Center. (2013, 2023). Executive Functions (Part 1): Understanding Why Some Students Struggle. Retrieved from https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/ef1/

References

Note: The references in this section reflect the source material used to construct this module. The links to these references are not updated.

Block, C. C., & Parris, S. R. (Eds.). (2008). Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices. New York: Guilford Press.

Blume, C. D. (2010). RAP: A reading comprehension strategy for students with learning disabilities. Thesis presented to the faculty of the graduate college at the University of Nebraska. Retrieved on November 16, 2012, from http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1061&context=cehsdiss

Council for Exceptional Children. (n.d.). Improving executive function skills: An innovative strategy that may enhance learning for all children. Retrieved on February 15, 2013, from http://oldsite.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Behavior_Management&template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=14463

Dawson, P., & Guare, R. (2009). Smart but scattered: The revolutionary “executive skills” approach to helping kids reach their potential. New York. Guillford Press.

Deshler, D. D., & Schumaker, J. B. (1993). Strategy mastery by at-risk students not a simple matter. The Elementary School Journal, 94(2), 153–167. Retrieved on November 16, 2012, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1001966

Deshler, D., & Schumaker, J. (Eds.). (2006). Teaching adolescents with disabilities: Accessing the general education with curriculum. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Didion, L., Toste, J. R., Benz, S. A., & Shogren, K. A. (2021). How are self-determination components taught to improve reading outcomes for elementary students with or at risk for learning disabilities? Learning Disability Quarterly, 44(4), 288–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948721989328

Ellis, E. S., Deshler, D. D., Lenz, B. K., Schumaker, J. B., & Clark, F. L. (1991). An instructional model for teaching learning strategies. Focus on Exceptional Children, 23(6), 1–24.

Ennis, R. P., & Losinski, M. (2019). SRSD fractions: Helping students at risk for disabilities add/subtract fractions with unlike denominators. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 52(5), 399–412. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219419859509

Gettinger, M., & Seibert, J. K. (2002). Contributions of study skills to academic competence. School Psychology Review, 31(3), 350–365.

Goldsmith, B. Z. (n.d.). Executive skills and your child with learning disabilities. Retrieved on June 5, 2013, from http://www.ncld.org/types-learning-disabilities/executive-function-disorders/executive-skills-your-child-with-learning-disabilities

Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2005). Improving the writing performance of young struggling writers: theoretical and programmatic research from the center on accelerating student learning. The Journal of Special Education, 3 (1), 19–33.

Guare, R., Dawson, P., & Guare, C. (2013). Smart but scattered teens: The “executive skills” program for helping teens reach their potential. New York: Guilford Press.

Kaufman, C. (2010). Executive function in the classroom: Practical strategies for improving performance and enhancing skills for all students. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Lackaye, T. D., & Margalit, M. (2006). Comparisons of achievement, effort, and self-perceptions among students with learning disabilities and their peers from different achievement groups. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(5), 432–446.

Losinski, M. L., Ennis, R. P., Sanders, S., & Wiseman, N. (2019). An investigation of SRSD to teach fractions to students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 85(3), 291–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402918813980

Luke, S. D. (2006). The power of strategy instruction. Evidence for Education, 1(1). Retrieved on November 16, 2012, from http://nichcy.org/research/ee/learning-strategies

Martinussen, R., & Major, A. (2011). Working memory weaknesses in students with ADHD: Implications for instruction. Theory Into Practice, 50(1), 68–75.

McLeskey, J., Landers, E., Hoppey, D., & Williamson, P. (2011). Learning disabilities and the LRE mandate: An examination of national and state trends. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 26(2), 60–66.

Meltzer, L. (2010). Promoting executive function in the classroom. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Meltzer, L., Katzir, T., Miller, L., & Roditi, B. (2001). The impact of effort and strategy use on academic performance: Student and teacher perceptions. Learning Disability Quarterly, 24(2), 85–98.

Meltzer, L., Krishnan, K., Stein, J. A., Ozonoff, S., Schetter, P. L., Pollica, L. S.,& Pressley, M. (2007). Executive function in education: From theory to practice. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Meltzer, L., Reddy, R., Pollica, L. S., Roditi, B., Sayer, J., & Theokas, C. (2004). Positive and negative self-perceptions: Is there a cyclical relationship between teachers’ and students’ perceptions of effort, strategy use, and academic performance? Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 19(1), 33–44.

Minskoff, E., & Allsopp, D. (2003). Academic success strategies for adolescents with learning disabilities and ADHD. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

National Center for Learning Disabilities. (n.d.). What is executive function? Retrieved on June 5, 2013, from http://www.ncld.org/types-learning-disabilities/executive-function-disorders/what-is-executive-function

Olsen, J. L., & Platt, J. C. (2004). Teaching children and adolescents with special needs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Pressley, M., Borkowski, J. G., & Schneider, W. (1989). Good information processing: What it is and how education can promote it. International Journal of Education Research, 13, 857–867. Retrieved on February 14, 2013, from http://opus.bibliothek.uni-wuerzburg.de/volltexte/2012/6212/pdf/Schneider_W69.pdf

Regan, K., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2009). A focus on: Self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) for writing. Go For It, 17. Retrieved on February 20, 2013, from http://s3.amazonaws.com/cmi-teaching-ld/alerts/3/uploaded_files/original_alert17writingSSRD.pdf?1301000388

Reid, R., & Lienemann, T. O. (2006). Strategy instruction for students with learning disabilities. New York: Guilford Press.

Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., Berkeley, S., & Graetz, J. E. (2009). Do special education interventions improve learning of secondary content? A meta-analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 31(6), 437–449. Retrieved on November 27, 2012, from http://rse.sagepub.com/content/31/6/437.full.pdf+html

Sideridis, G. D. (2003). On the origins of helpless behavior of students with learning disabilities: Avoidance motivation? International Journal of Educational Research, 39, 497–517.

Stuart, A. (n.d.). What is working memory and why does it matter? Retrieved on February15, 2013, from http://www.ncld.org/types-learning-disabilities/executive-function-disorders/what-is-working-memory-why-does-matter

Sturomski, N. (1997). Teaching students with learning disabilities to use learning strategies. NICHCY News Digest, 25, 2–15. Retrieved on February 14, 2013, from http://nichcy.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/nd25.pdf

The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. (2011, August). Do special education interventions improve learning of secondary content? A meta-analysis. NICHCY Structured Abstract No. 80. Retrieved on June 5, 2013, from http://nichcy.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/meta80.pdf

U.S. Department of Education. (2022). 44th annual report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Act, 2022. https://sites.ed.gov/idea/files/44th-arc-for-idea.pdf

Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(2), 64–70.

Credits

Content Expert

Robert Reid

Module Developer

Kim Skow

Module Production Team

Editor
Jason Miller

Reviewers
Janice Brown
Amy Harris
Robert Reid
Deb Smith
Naomi Tyler
Zina Yzquierdo

Transcriptions
Janet Church
Pam Dismuke
Courtney Murphy

Financial
Pam Dismuke

Audio Engineer
Vaughn Skow
Brian Smokler

Media specialist/Technical Support
Erik Dunton
Brenda Knight

Web master
John Harwood

Media

Voice Talent
Kira Dunton

Actors
Erin
Hannah
Kyra
Andrew Stewart
Danette Waites

Graphics
Microsoft Clipart
Clipart.com

Photos
ReelVision
Shutterstock
Vaughn Skow
Photos of module experts are courtesy themselves. 

All other media and images are courtesy the IRIS Center.

Expert Interviews

Danette Waites (p. 1)
Erin (p. 1, 2, 4)
Kyra (p. 1)
Hannah (p. 1, 4)
Robert Reid (p. 1)
Mary Anne Prater-Doty (p. 2)
Don Deshler (pp. 2, 3, 4)
Karen Harris (p. 3)

Special thanks to Peg Dawson and Richard Guare for permission to use the Executive Skills Questionnaires (Page 1 link). Our sincere appreciation also to Erin, Hannah, and Kyra for all they did to help make this module possible.

When you are ready, proceed to the Wrap Up section.

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